<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><xml><records><record><source-app name="Biblio" version="7.x">Drupal-Biblio</source-app><ref-type>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Mona Holmqvist</style></author><author><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Jane  Mattisson</style></author></authors></contributors><titles><title><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">CONTRASTING CASES AND THEIR IMPACT ON LEARNING: A REP-LICATION OF A LEARNING STUDY CONFIRMING THE IMPACT OF CONTRASTS</style></title><secondary-title><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Problems of Education in the 21st Century </style></secondary-title></titles><keywords><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">generative learning</style></keyword><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">phenomenography</style></keyword><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">variation theory</style></keyword></keywords><dates><year><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">2009</style></year><pub-dates><date><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">January/2009</style></date></pub-dates></dates><urls><web-urls><url><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">http://oaji.net/articles/2014/457-1392315254.pdf</style></url></web-urls></urls><volume><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">10</style></volume><language><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">eng</style></language><abstract><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">The present article describes how Swedish pupils in class 4 (nine to eleven years old) learn English as a second language. The study replicates a learning study carried out within the framework of a more ex-tensive project known as “The Pedagogy of Learning”. The present study is aiming to find out if the re-sults from one original learning study can be generalised to other teachers and pupils. The pupils partici-pating in the presented study learn how to use “to have”. The original Learning Study Cycle (LSC) con-sisted of three lessons per cycle, each lesson carried out in different groups of pupils. The teachers fo-cused on the critical aspects, i.e. the features which must be distinguished in order to understand a phe-nomenon. This process entailed investigating the contrasts between the specified learning outcome(s), i.e. the ability or knowledge targeted. The lessons were planned from a variation theory perspective. The LSC demonstrated that the use of contrast – applied in only one of the three lessons – between “to be” and “to have” had a positive effect on pupils’ generative learning, i.e. continued learning outside the classroom. In order to establish if the results of the present study are coincidental or repeatable the LSC was repli-cated. The first replicated study was conducted by a group of teachers with a good knowledge of variation theory. These teachers had previously applied the theory in mathematics lessons. A second replication was initiated by a group of teachers with no knowledge of variation theory. The results demonstrated that contrast is important for generative learning provided that teachers are able to focus on critical aspects and thereby elucidate contrast. In the group familiar with variation theory the results were similar to those of the original study, i.e. generative learning was promoted, while contrast had little effect on the pupils generative learning in the group of teachers who had no knowledge of variation theory. The study demonstrates that generative learning is dependent on teachers’ knowledge of how the critical aspects of the target knowledge should be presented to pupils. Such knowledge enables teachers to apply contrast as a means of developing pupils’ ability to distinguish qualitative differences. In this way, pupils continue to develop their knowledge beyond the classroom.</style></abstract><work-type><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Original article</style></work-type><section><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">38-46</style></section></record><record><source-app name="Biblio" version="7.x">Drupal-Biblio</source-app><ref-type>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Thomas E.B. Assan</style></author></authors></contributors><titles><title><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">EDUCATORS’ CLASSROOM EXPERIENCES WITH VARIATION OF LEARNING THEORY</style></title><secondary-title><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Problems of Education in the 21st Century </style></secondary-title></titles><keywords><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">outcome space</style></keyword><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">phenomenography</style></keyword><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">variation theory of learning</style></keyword></keywords><dates><year><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">2009</style></year><pub-dates><date><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">December/2009</style></date></pub-dates></dates><urls><web-urls><url><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">http://oaji.net/articles/2014/457-1399915600.pdf</style></url></web-urls></urls><volume><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">18</style></volume><language><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">eng</style></language><abstract><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Classroom practitioners are expected to facilitate effective learning under the outcome-based education in South Africa. During this facilitation process, educators are required to become more resourceful in terms of their learning and teaching strategies. This article is based on a case study within the phenomenographic paradigm, of grade nine educators and learners in four schools in the North West Province of South Africa, on specific economics topic relating to the understanding of the value or price determination of the South Africa Rand on the foreign exchange market. The article is divided into three parts. Firstly, the concepts of phenomenography and variation theory of learning are explored and constituted as the conceptual framework for the study. The second part deals with educators’ experiences with the variation theory as a classroom resource for learning. The last section of the article deals with the impact of educators’ classroom experiences with the variation theory on learners’ quantitative and qualitative learning outcomes. The results showed an improvement in the learners’ understanding of the economics topic studied. </style></abstract><work-type><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Original article</style></work-type><section><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">8-20</style></section></record><record><source-app name="Biblio" version="7.x">Drupal-Biblio</source-app><ref-type>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Mona Holmqvist</style></author><author><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Gunilla Lindgren</style></author><author><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Jane  Mattisson</style></author><author><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Teresa Svarvell</style></author></authors></contributors><titles><title><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">INSTRUCTION BUILT ON LEARNERS’ PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE BY USING THE VARIATION THEORY</style></title><secondary-title><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Problems of Education in the 21st Century </style></secondary-title></titles><keywords><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">contrastive linguistic</style></keyword><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">phenomenography</style></keyword><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">variation theory</style></keyword></keywords><dates><year><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">2008</style></year><pub-dates><date><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">May/2008</style></date></pub-dates></dates><urls><web-urls><url><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">http://oaji.net/articles/2014/457-1392233451.pdf</style></url></web-urls></urls><volume><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">6</style></volume><language><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">eng</style></language><abstract><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">This chapter discusses teaching based upon pupils’ previous knowledge. As the world becomes more and more globalised, it is harder and harder for a teacher to form a picture of the pupils’ knowledge when planning instruction. However, without this information about pupils, it is impossible to know if the created learning situations are conducive to learning or if the pupils had already acquired knowledge about the learning object before the learning situation. In this study pupils’ previous knowledge is investigated in relation to how English as a Second Language is learnt when pupils have different mother tongues. In a phenomenographic study we found that pupils with three different mother tongues, when placed in the same learning situation, made errors which could be traced back to the structure of their mother tongue. This observation led to a learning study, in which variation theory was the theoretical point of departure, and in which three different research lessons with three different groups of pupils were carried out. The learning object was dependent possessives, and the pupils’ mother tongue was Swedish. As there is no differentiation between independent and dependent possessives in Swedish, the pupils could not discern the difference between these two forms. As Swedish has a differentiation between t- and n-gender, the puils wrongly assumed that the difference between my and mine was not connected to dependent and independent possessives but to gender. The results of our study show how teachers who are familiar with the pupils’ previous knowledge (mother tongue) can become aware of what mistakes they might make as ESL learners; this knowledge has a profound effect on instruction. In this way, teachers can also predict and plan what information is needed to develop learning situations which provide maximum opportunity to learn. They also understand what kinds of critical aspects are necessary to enable pupils to discern. As a result, teachers are more effective, which is reflected in better pupil results in the classroom. </style></abstract><work-type><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Original article</style></work-type><section><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">86-95</style></section></record><record><source-app name="Biblio" version="7.x">Drupal-Biblio</source-app><ref-type>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Mona Holmqvist</style></author><author><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Jane  Mattisson</style></author></authors></contributors><titles><title><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">VARIATION THEORY: A TOOL TO ANALYSE AND DEVELOP LEARNING AT SCHOOL</style></title><secondary-title><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Problems of Education in the 21st Century </style></secondary-title></titles><keywords><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">instruction</style></keyword><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">phenomenography</style></keyword><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">variation theory</style></keyword></keywords><dates><year><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">2008</style></year><pub-dates><date><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">June/2008</style></date></pub-dates></dates><urls><web-urls><url><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">http://oaji.net/articles/2014/457-1392234817.pdf</style></url></web-urls></urls><volume><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">7</style></volume><language><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">eng</style></language><abstract><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">This chapter argues that the decisive factor in the learning process is the object focused upon in the learning situation and not, as is commonly believed, the teaching method. We demonstrate how teaching and learning can be facilitated with the aid of a theory. The theory chosen is variation theory, which allows one to explain what it takes to learn a certain learning object. Both pupils’ and teachers’ learning are focused upon, as learning takes place in the interaction between the two. It is in the meeting of pupils’ and teachers’ knowledge that understanding of a specific learning object takes place. The three integral components of variation theory – discernment, simultaneity and variation – are described. By studying a specific learning object in three different classroom situations we demonstrate how it is possible to illuminate the different ways in which a learning object can be presented. These ways are described and analysed in terms of their implications for pupils’ learning. Our paper elucidates how variation theory can be employed to describe, plan and analyse the learning process. In a research project, it is the selection of what is to be focused upon which is the most critical factor, as it determines both the choice of theoretical perspective and method. Both theory and method are important tools for providing answers to research questions. It is only when the lesson content is specified and the pupils’ knowledge before and after a lesson is both ascertained and related to how the specific learning object has been presented in the classroom that one can determine what pupils have learned, and why they have learned it. Variation theory is an ideal theoretical perspective for such a study.</style></abstract><work-type><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Original article</style></work-type><section><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">31-38</style></section></record><record><source-app name="Biblio" version="7.x">Drupal-Biblio</source-app><ref-type>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Maija Ahtee</style></author><author><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Olavi Hakkarainen</style></author></authors></contributors><titles><title><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">CHANGING PUPILS’ CONCEPTIONS ABOUT WEIGHT APPLYING VARIATION THEORY</style></title><secondary-title><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Problems of Education in the 21st Century </style></secondary-title></titles><keywords><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">phenomenography</style></keyword><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">teaching intervention</style></keyword><keyword><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">variation theory</style></keyword></keywords><dates><year><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">2007</style></year><pub-dates><date><style  face="normal" font="default" size="100%">August/2007</style></date></pub-dates></dates><urls><web-urls><url><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">http://oaji.net/articles/2014/457-1392217372.pdf</style></url></web-urls></urls><volume><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">1</style></volume><language><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">eng</style></language><abstract><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">In phenomenography the aim is to describe and classify people’s conceptions. Teachers have to be aware of the various alternative conceptions on which pupils are relying in their reasoning when they try to understand a concept or a phenomenon. Marton’s variation theory of learning gives guidance to teachers how to design a successful teaching intervention by taking into account discernment, variation and simultaneity. 
In this article comprehensive school pupils’ conceptions on the concept of weight in the pulley surrounding have been studied using phenomenographic method. Pupils from 5th, 7th and 9th grades compared the weight of a small standard mass and a big bag hanging in a pulley at different positions in balance. In all the three age groups the majority (about 70%) of the pupils stated that the lower hanging bag is heavier. From the pupils’ justifications five hierarchical categories were found: Motion, Position, Appearance, Material and No reasoning. Only about 5% of the seventh graders and 10% of the ninth graders seem to have an idea about the scientific explanation based on the immobility of the hanging objects.
 Next, in order to change these conceptions a teaching intervention was planned so that in three successive demonstrations the critical features found in the earlier study about pupils’ conceptions were varied. After the teaching about 40% of the fifth graders and 45% of the ninth graders perceived that they have to pay attention to the immobility of the objects. 
Finally, it is shown how the cognitive conflicts and the four patterns of variation gradually change the pupils’ ideas toward the scientific explanation. Teachers can help pupils by using successive demonstrations with appropriate variation and taking up in discussion pupils’ misconceptions and the critical features in the demonstration.</style></abstract><work-type><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">Original article</style></work-type><section><style face="normal" font="default" size="100%">13-24</style></section></record></records></xml>